Contribution of thin-slice (1 mm) axial proton density MR images for identification and classification of meniscal tears: correlative study with arthroscopy
Contribution of thin-slice (1 mm) axial proton density MR images for identification and classification of meniscal tears: correlative study with arthroscopy
To evaluate the diagnostic efficacy of thin-slice (1 mm) axial proton density-weighted (PDW) MRI of the knee for meniscal tear detection and classification.We prospectively assessed pre-operative MR images of 58 patients (41 males, 17 females; age range 18–62 years) with arthroscopically confirmed meniscal tear. First, we evaluated the performance of the sagittal and thin-slice axial MR images for the diagnosis of meniscal tears. Second, we compared the correlation of tear types presumed from sagittal and axial MRI with arthroscopy and tear classification from axial MRI. Tears were classified on the sagittal plane and the axial plane separately. The diagnostic performance and tear classification were compared statistically with arthroscopy results, which is accepted as the standard of reference.
8 of 58 patients were removed from the study group because they had complex or degenerative tears. A total of 62 tears were detected with arthroscopy in 50 patients. On the sagittal images, sensitivity and specificity values were 90.62% and 70.37%, respectively, for medial meniscus tears and 72.73% and 77.14%, respectively, for lateral meniscus tears. The corresponding values for axial images were 97.30% and 84.00%, respectively, for medial meniscus tears and 95.65% and 80.50%, respectively, for lateral meniscus tears. There was no significant difference in tear classification between the arthroscopy results and the thin-slice axial PDW MRI results (p>0.05).
thin-slice axial PDW MRI increases the sensitivity and specificity of meniscal tear detection and especially classification, which is important for surgical procedure decisions.
Meniscal
tears often occur because of trauma in young athletes or because of
degenerative changes in the elderly. Diagnosis of meniscal tears is
established by history, clinical examination and radiological
assessment. MRI findings significantly contribute to the clinical
evaluation, and preclude unnecessary diagnostic arthroscopy [1]. Currently, the accuracy of knee MRI for meniscopathy is reported to be 78–83% by various studies [2,3].
Although arthroscopy is recognised as the “gold standard”, it should be
performed by an experienced operator as arthroscopic examination of the
posterior horns of both menisci is not an easy task [4].
According to the current classification system, meniscal tears are recognised by their grade 3 signal intensity relative to the meniscal articular surface; however, this classification does not include the anatomy of various meniscus tear patterns (e.g. horizontal, vertical) that are determined during arthroscopic surgery of the knee [5]. Moreover, routine sagittal and coronal images are not adequate for detection of tear configuration. Meniscal tears can be categorised into two primary tear planes based on the cross-sectional anatomy of the meniscus on sagittal MR images: vertical and horizontal [5]. Vertical tears extend towards the meniscal surface as longitudinal, radial or flap (oblique) tears [5]. Non-cleavage horizontal tears (vertical–horizontal) demonstrate either longitudinal or flap surface tear patterns [5]. Classification of vertical and non-cleavage horizontal tears in such a fashion can only be performed by using axial sections. Axial images depict tears in an additional third plane and can provide information on orientation, size and displacement of tears [6].
The four main approaches for management of meniscal tears are: partial meniscectomy, meniscal repair, conservative treatment and complete meniscectomy [7]. There are various factors that influence the treatment of meniscal lesions such as the patient's age, chronicity, lesion type, location of the lesion relative to the vascular zone and size of the tear [4]. Repairable meniscal tears often prove to be unstable longitudinal or flap tears. Radial, horizontal or complex tears are generally not suitable for repair [7,8]. Meniscal tears over the peripheral and vascularised portion of the meniscus can heal owing to ingrowth of capillaries and may subsequently have an appearance similar to that of fibrocartilage [4,9]. The majority of small, acute tears may heal spontaneously and render arthroscopy unnecessary [4]. Some surgeons may prefer not to perform surgery on partial thickness horizontal or oblique tears [10].
An accurate description of a meniscal tear has become increasingly important, with the emphasis on meniscal preservation and repair, because of the long-term complications of meniscectomy that comprise degenerative changes, patient dissatisfaction, marked disability and chronic pain [4,11].
In this study, we aimed to investigate the efficacy of axial 1-mm-thick proton density-weighted (PDW) MRI in the detection and classification of meniscal tears. Accurate identification of meniscal tears is important to avoid unnecessary surgery, provide better treatment and ensure meniscal preservation and success of repair.
According to the current classification system, meniscal tears are recognised by their grade 3 signal intensity relative to the meniscal articular surface; however, this classification does not include the anatomy of various meniscus tear patterns (e.g. horizontal, vertical) that are determined during arthroscopic surgery of the knee [5]. Moreover, routine sagittal and coronal images are not adequate for detection of tear configuration. Meniscal tears can be categorised into two primary tear planes based on the cross-sectional anatomy of the meniscus on sagittal MR images: vertical and horizontal [5]. Vertical tears extend towards the meniscal surface as longitudinal, radial or flap (oblique) tears [5]. Non-cleavage horizontal tears (vertical–horizontal) demonstrate either longitudinal or flap surface tear patterns [5]. Classification of vertical and non-cleavage horizontal tears in such a fashion can only be performed by using axial sections. Axial images depict tears in an additional third plane and can provide information on orientation, size and displacement of tears [6].
The four main approaches for management of meniscal tears are: partial meniscectomy, meniscal repair, conservative treatment and complete meniscectomy [7]. There are various factors that influence the treatment of meniscal lesions such as the patient's age, chronicity, lesion type, location of the lesion relative to the vascular zone and size of the tear [4]. Repairable meniscal tears often prove to be unstable longitudinal or flap tears. Radial, horizontal or complex tears are generally not suitable for repair [7,8]. Meniscal tears over the peripheral and vascularised portion of the meniscus can heal owing to ingrowth of capillaries and may subsequently have an appearance similar to that of fibrocartilage [4,9]. The majority of small, acute tears may heal spontaneously and render arthroscopy unnecessary [4]. Some surgeons may prefer not to perform surgery on partial thickness horizontal or oblique tears [10].
An accurate description of a meniscal tear has become increasingly important, with the emphasis on meniscal preservation and repair, because of the long-term complications of meniscectomy that comprise degenerative changes, patient dissatisfaction, marked disability and chronic pain [4,11].
In this study, we aimed to investigate the efficacy of axial 1-mm-thick proton density-weighted (PDW) MRI in the detection and classification of meniscal tears. Accurate identification of meniscal tears is important to avoid unnecessary surgery, provide better treatment and ensure meniscal preservation and success of repair.
MR
images were analysed by using Merge e-film v. 2.0 (Merge Technologies
Inc., Milwaukee, WI) software and workstation. Images were evaluated by
two experienced radiologists (GG and OFN) blinded to the clinical and
arthroscopic findings, with the aim of identifying meniscal tears. A
single, experienced orthopaedic surgeon (BD) conducted all of the
arthroscopic assessments in patients suspected of having a torn meniscus
or any other internal derangement of the knee. The orthopaedic surgeon
was blinded to the results of MRI studies.
The location and type of the meniscal tears were evaluated at different time points on sagittal and axial images. First, we compared the diagnostic performance of sagittal TSE FS PDW/axial TSE PDW MRI with that of arthroscopy with regard to meniscal tears by a five-point scale (0, definitely absent; 1, probably absent; 2, equivocal; 3, probably present; 4, definitely present). Second, sagittal TSE FS PDW/axial TSE PDW MRI and arthroscopy results were compared in terms of the type of meniscal tear. Tears were categorised separately on sagittal [vertical, vertical–horizontal (oblique), horizontal, bucket-handle] and axial (radial, flap, longitudinal, horizontal, bucket-handle) images. Axial PDW MRI findings were compared with those of arthroscopy, which were recognised as the reference data. The diagnostic criteria for meniscal tear were abnormal signal intensity within the meniscus extending towards the meniscal articular surface or abnormal meniscal morphology.
In our study, meniscal tears were defined as follows:
The presence of a meniscal tear was evaluated and noted on a tear-by-tear basis, not on a meniscus-by-meniscus basis. For instance, even in the presence of multiple tears in a single meniscus, the readers noted each tear separately because the principal target of our study was to classify the types of meniscal tear. Identification of the types of meniscal tear was carried out according to the classification system of Stoller et al [5]. Accordingly, vertical tears were categorised as radial, flap or longitudinal; vertical–horizontal tears were categorised as flap or longitudinal (Figure 1).
The location and type of the meniscal tears were evaluated at different time points on sagittal and axial images. First, we compared the diagnostic performance of sagittal TSE FS PDW/axial TSE PDW MRI with that of arthroscopy with regard to meniscal tears by a five-point scale (0, definitely absent; 1, probably absent; 2, equivocal; 3, probably present; 4, definitely present). Second, sagittal TSE FS PDW/axial TSE PDW MRI and arthroscopy results were compared in terms of the type of meniscal tear. Tears were categorised separately on sagittal [vertical, vertical–horizontal (oblique), horizontal, bucket-handle] and axial (radial, flap, longitudinal, horizontal, bucket-handle) images. Axial PDW MRI findings were compared with those of arthroscopy, which were recognised as the reference data. The diagnostic criteria for meniscal tear were abnormal signal intensity within the meniscus extending towards the meniscal articular surface or abnormal meniscal morphology.
In our study, meniscal tears were defined as follows:
The presence of a meniscal tear was evaluated and noted on a tear-by-tear basis, not on a meniscus-by-meniscus basis. For instance, even in the presence of multiple tears in a single meniscus, the readers noted each tear separately because the principal target of our study was to classify the types of meniscal tear. Identification of the types of meniscal tear was carried out according to the classification system of Stoller et al [5]. Accordingly, vertical tears were categorised as radial, flap or longitudinal; vertical–horizontal tears were categorised as flap or longitudinal (Figure 1).
8
of 58 patients were excluded because they had complex or degenerative
tears that were difficult to classify properly. In total, 62 (39 medial
and 23 lateral menisci) tears were found with arthroscopy in 50
patients. There was no significant difference between the sagittal,
axial and arthroscopic findings with regard to meniscal tear detection (p>0.05).
Sensitivity and specificity values for sagittal PDW images were 90.62%
and 70.37%, respectively, in the medial meniscus and 72.73% and 77.14%,
respectively, in the lateral meniscus. Sensitivity and specificity
values for axial PDW images were 97.30% and 84%, respectively, in the
medial meniscus and 95.65% and 80.56%, respectively, in the lateral
meniscus. Axial PDW images showed a higher diagnostic capability than
conventional sagittal PDW images (Table 1; values for the area under the ROC curve).
The types of meniscal tears identified in the sagittal plane based on arthroscopy (Table 2) included:
Since
classification of tear types was different on the sagittal images, it
was not statistically compared with the arthroscopy results.
The types of meniscal tears identified in the axial plane based on arthroscopy are given in Table 3. Arthroscopy and axial PDW MRI results were not significantly different in terms of tear classification (p>0.05). The results for sensitivity, specificity, p-value and area under the ROC curve for medial and lateral menisci on axial PDW images are shown in Table 4.
Examples of cases are presented in Figures 2–5.
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The types of meniscal tears identified in the axial plane based on arthroscopy are given in Table 3. Arthroscopy and axial PDW MRI results were not significantly different in terms of tear classification (p>0.05). The results for sensitivity, specificity, p-value and area under the ROC curve for medial and lateral menisci on axial PDW images are shown in Table 4.
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MRI is routinely used for evaluating the broad range of internal derangements and articular disorders of the knee [5].
Moreover, in addition to its diagnostic utility, MRI has also been
shown to be a valuable tool in the selection of surgical candidates and
in pre-operative planning [5].
The menisci play an important role in joint stabilisation and reduction of compressive forces influencing the articular cartilage [5]. Meniscal injuries may be associated with a history of twisting, squatting or cutting [9]. Abnormal shear forces that may occur as a result of knee compression–rotation are known to lead to meniscal damage [5].
Knee MRI has been shown to have a superior accuracy in the diagnosis of meniscal tears [12,13]. In previous studies, the sensitivity and specificity for medial meniscal tears have been noted to range from 87% to 97% and from 87% to 98%, respectively, whereas the same values have been reported to range from 72% to 93% and from 89% to 99%, respectively, for the lateral meniscal tears [14]. The differences between the sensitivity and the specificity might be secondary to the preferred sequences, observer variation or sample size [4]. The medial meniscus displays a higher sensitivity, whereas the lateral meniscus exhibits a higher specificity [4]. In our study, sagittal and axial images were also found to be highly sensitive and specific for the detection of meniscal tears. In particular, using thin-slice axial images further increases the diagnostic capability. This may be owing to the use of thinner sections for axial images. In the current study, sensitivity for the detection of tears was higher in the medial meniscus in both planes than in the lateral meniscus.
Meniscal fluid interface and morphology are best visualised on TSE images [5]. The most frequently used sequences are spin echo or TSE PDW with or without FS and gradient echo [15]. Although meniscal structure can be revealed by axial images, routine axial images of 4–5 mm thickness are not sensitive to meniscal pathologies because of excessive thickness [5]. The versatility of MRI in the evaluation of meniscal tears has been shown by three-dimensional (3D) volumetric techniques and thin-section two-dimensional images. In our study, we preferred to use two-dimensional thin section MRI. Thinner sections can better reveal the signal–surface contact and tear morphology [16,17].
Although sagittal and coronal planes have been found to be valuable in the diagnosis of meniscal tears by MRI, they are known to be of no such value in the classification of these tears since the course of meniscal tears on coronal images follows a superior–inferior route, similar to that of the sagittal views [18,19].
Pre-operatively, surgeons need to acquire information not only on the presence of the meniscal tears but also on their morphological characteristics, in order to decide the most appropriate surgical method (resection or suturing of the torn menisci) [4,7,8,20]. Axial images of the menisci may help in identification and confirmation of the meniscal tear patterns [18].
In our study, axial images showed no difference from arthroscopy findings with regard to classification of the tears. Therefore, in cases in which classification of tears is planned to be performed by routine knee MRI, inclusion of axial views will be useful. Moreover, our study showed that vertical and vertical–horizontal tear types on sagittal images could be classified accurately in the axial plane. In this study, vertical and vertical–horizontal tears in the sagittal plane were classified as radial, flap and longitudinal tears. Arthroscopy and axial PDW images demonstrated no significant difference in terms of classification of the tears, and both were found to be highly sensitive and specific in this regard.
The number of studies focusing on the classification of tears on axial images is limited [6,14,16,18,20,21]. Tarhan et al [18] showed that axial images improved the sensitivity and specificity in lateral meniscal tears. Lee et al [6] showed that, although axial FS fast spin echo images effectively revealed vertical tears and displaced meniscal fragments, horizontal tears were indistinct. However, their results were not compared with arthroscopy results. Both of the above mentioned studies used a section thickness of 4–5 mm, and menisci were visualised on one or two images. Axial reconstruction images were generated by applying 3D volumetric methods in order to show meniscal tears. Yoon et al [14] performed TSE PDW MRI with 1 mm thickness and observed inadequate tissue contrast because of the presence of a certain degree of image degradation during the multiplanar reconstruction process owing to non-isotropic images. Jung et al [22] acquired isotropic axial multiplanar reconstruction images by 3 T MRI. However, 3D volume techniques have some limitations, such as the presence of a higher signal intensity in normal menisci than that on the spin-echo sequence and more widespread signal increase in the degenerated menisci [4]. This raised meniscal signal intensity can confuse the examiner in deciding whether the abnormal signal actually extends into the articular surface or not and reduces the specificity [4].
Ohishi et al [20] used axial reconstructed images obtained by 3D MRI data sets in morphological diagnosis of meniscal tears. While axial images acquired from 3D MRI data sets were observed to be helpful in the diagnosis of radial tears, the rate of false-positive findings in the medial meniscus was relatively high and horizontal tears were indistinct. In the current study, although sensitivity and specificity values for the detection of horizontal tears in the medial meniscus on axial images were higher, they were still lower than those of the other tear types. Moreover, the sensitivity of axial images was found to be reduced in the detection of radial tears. This may be secondary to the fact that the number of radial tears in the medial meniscus was not high. However, axial images were observed to have high sensitivity and specificity for all the tear types in the lateral meniscus (100%).
Our study had some limitations. First, acquisition of thin-slice PDW images takes a long time (6 min). This can be avoided by using 3 T MRI, which shortens the duration of acquisition, and application of parallel imaging methods. The second limitation was the inadequacy of arthroscopy in the evaluation of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus in some cases. However, arthroscopy is regarded as the gold standard for assessment of meniscal tears. The third limitation was the use of thick slice sagittal images because of long acquisition times in thin-slice sequences. However, the aim of our study was not to determine the sensitivity of sagittal and axial images in the detection of meniscal tears, but to classify the meniscal tears on axial images.
In conclusion, since axial images present an additional plane for visualisation alongside sagittal and coronal planes, they increase the sensitivity and specificity of the imaging results. Axial images proved to be very useful, particularly with regard to classification of the vertical and vertical–horizontal tears. Integration of axial imaging with the routine sagittal and coronal images will facilitate the identification and classification of meniscal tears.
The menisci play an important role in joint stabilisation and reduction of compressive forces influencing the articular cartilage [5]. Meniscal injuries may be associated with a history of twisting, squatting or cutting [9]. Abnormal shear forces that may occur as a result of knee compression–rotation are known to lead to meniscal damage [5].
Knee MRI has been shown to have a superior accuracy in the diagnosis of meniscal tears [12,13]. In previous studies, the sensitivity and specificity for medial meniscal tears have been noted to range from 87% to 97% and from 87% to 98%, respectively, whereas the same values have been reported to range from 72% to 93% and from 89% to 99%, respectively, for the lateral meniscal tears [14]. The differences between the sensitivity and the specificity might be secondary to the preferred sequences, observer variation or sample size [4]. The medial meniscus displays a higher sensitivity, whereas the lateral meniscus exhibits a higher specificity [4]. In our study, sagittal and axial images were also found to be highly sensitive and specific for the detection of meniscal tears. In particular, using thin-slice axial images further increases the diagnostic capability. This may be owing to the use of thinner sections for axial images. In the current study, sensitivity for the detection of tears was higher in the medial meniscus in both planes than in the lateral meniscus.
Meniscal fluid interface and morphology are best visualised on TSE images [5]. The most frequently used sequences are spin echo or TSE PDW with or without FS and gradient echo [15]. Although meniscal structure can be revealed by axial images, routine axial images of 4–5 mm thickness are not sensitive to meniscal pathologies because of excessive thickness [5]. The versatility of MRI in the evaluation of meniscal tears has been shown by three-dimensional (3D) volumetric techniques and thin-section two-dimensional images. In our study, we preferred to use two-dimensional thin section MRI. Thinner sections can better reveal the signal–surface contact and tear morphology [16,17].
Although sagittal and coronal planes have been found to be valuable in the diagnosis of meniscal tears by MRI, they are known to be of no such value in the classification of these tears since the course of meniscal tears on coronal images follows a superior–inferior route, similar to that of the sagittal views [18,19].
Pre-operatively, surgeons need to acquire information not only on the presence of the meniscal tears but also on their morphological characteristics, in order to decide the most appropriate surgical method (resection or suturing of the torn menisci) [4,7,8,20]. Axial images of the menisci may help in identification and confirmation of the meniscal tear patterns [18].
In our study, axial images showed no difference from arthroscopy findings with regard to classification of the tears. Therefore, in cases in which classification of tears is planned to be performed by routine knee MRI, inclusion of axial views will be useful. Moreover, our study showed that vertical and vertical–horizontal tear types on sagittal images could be classified accurately in the axial plane. In this study, vertical and vertical–horizontal tears in the sagittal plane were classified as radial, flap and longitudinal tears. Arthroscopy and axial PDW images demonstrated no significant difference in terms of classification of the tears, and both were found to be highly sensitive and specific in this regard.
The number of studies focusing on the classification of tears on axial images is limited [6,14,16,18,20,21]. Tarhan et al [18] showed that axial images improved the sensitivity and specificity in lateral meniscal tears. Lee et al [6] showed that, although axial FS fast spin echo images effectively revealed vertical tears and displaced meniscal fragments, horizontal tears were indistinct. However, their results were not compared with arthroscopy results. Both of the above mentioned studies used a section thickness of 4–5 mm, and menisci were visualised on one or two images. Axial reconstruction images were generated by applying 3D volumetric methods in order to show meniscal tears. Yoon et al [14] performed TSE PDW MRI with 1 mm thickness and observed inadequate tissue contrast because of the presence of a certain degree of image degradation during the multiplanar reconstruction process owing to non-isotropic images. Jung et al [22] acquired isotropic axial multiplanar reconstruction images by 3 T MRI. However, 3D volume techniques have some limitations, such as the presence of a higher signal intensity in normal menisci than that on the spin-echo sequence and more widespread signal increase in the degenerated menisci [4]. This raised meniscal signal intensity can confuse the examiner in deciding whether the abnormal signal actually extends into the articular surface or not and reduces the specificity [4].
Ohishi et al [20] used axial reconstructed images obtained by 3D MRI data sets in morphological diagnosis of meniscal tears. While axial images acquired from 3D MRI data sets were observed to be helpful in the diagnosis of radial tears, the rate of false-positive findings in the medial meniscus was relatively high and horizontal tears were indistinct. In the current study, although sensitivity and specificity values for the detection of horizontal tears in the medial meniscus on axial images were higher, they were still lower than those of the other tear types. Moreover, the sensitivity of axial images was found to be reduced in the detection of radial tears. This may be secondary to the fact that the number of radial tears in the medial meniscus was not high. However, axial images were observed to have high sensitivity and specificity for all the tear types in the lateral meniscus (100%).
Our study had some limitations. First, acquisition of thin-slice PDW images takes a long time (6 min). This can be avoided by using 3 T MRI, which shortens the duration of acquisition, and application of parallel imaging methods. The second limitation was the inadequacy of arthroscopy in the evaluation of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus in some cases. However, arthroscopy is regarded as the gold standard for assessment of meniscal tears. The third limitation was the use of thick slice sagittal images because of long acquisition times in thin-slice sequences. However, the aim of our study was not to determine the sensitivity of sagittal and axial images in the detection of meniscal tears, but to classify the meniscal tears on axial images.
In conclusion, since axial images present an additional plane for visualisation alongside sagittal and coronal planes, they increase the sensitivity and specificity of the imaging results. Axial images proved to be very useful, particularly with regard to classification of the vertical and vertical–horizontal tears. Integration of axial imaging with the routine sagittal and coronal images will facilitate the identification and classification of meniscal tears.
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